Germplasm conservation of under-utilised fruit tree species grown in the European countries of the Mediterranean Basin deserves low attention, regardless the present and potential economical and environmental importance of their cultivation.

Since reviews on the state of conservation were uncompleted and general data bank on the existing collections (Passport data) and on the possible utilisation and evaluation were not easily available a working group, formed by 11 Institutions from France, Greece, Italy and Spain, was established.

Furthemore, a project proposal was submitted to the European Commission in the frame of the "European Programme on the Conservation, Characterisation, Collection and Utilisation of Genetic Resources in Agriculture" (EC regulation N°1467/94) by the same Institutions of the above mentioned European countries (Table 1) in order to create a common basis for the promotion of 16 under-utilised fruit tree species (namely Fig, Pomegranate, Japanese Persimmon, Loquat, Cactus Pear, Quince for fruit production, European Chestnut, Pistachio among the inventoried, and Strawberry Tree, Cornelian Cherry, Medlar, Jujube, Azarole, Service Tree, Mulberry Tree and Carob Tree among those non inventoried). After approval of the EC, the project, called "Conservation, Evaluation, Exploitation and Collection of Minor Fruit Tree Species" (GENRES 29), started on April 1996 under the co-ordination of the Horticulture Department of the University of Florence.

Table 1 – European Mediterranean Partners of the Project

The general project objectives were to establish a basis for the conservation and utilisation of the 16 mentioned fruit tree species, to create an European Inventory and to develop a first database on germplasm collections comprehensive of both first and advanced characterisation descriptors within a period of 3 years.

During project’s lifetime, Descriptor Lists (containing Passport, First Characterisation and Further Characterisation and Evaluation data) were defined for each interested species. Data were collected for all of the 1,386 both ex situ and in situ collected accessions. In general, collected and computed data for all categories represent the 60% of the total amount of all observable data. More in detail, 60.8% of data have been collected on accessions of the 8 inventoried species and 39.2% on the 8 non inventoried species.

A First European Inventory of Collected Accessions was edited in the Internet (Web pages of the Project: http://www.unifi.it/project/ueresgen29/), and the European Minor Fruit Tree Species Database (EMFTSDatabase) has been completed for Passport and First Characterisation data, while input data concerning the Further Characterisation and Evaluation represents the 45.5% of observable data of this category.

The Ficus carica L. species (family Moraceae), is native of Eastern tropical and subtropical areas like most of the 900 species of Ficus. Fruits of "domestic fig" (or "female fig") cultivars were harvested in Egypt in the third millennium B.C. European countries lying around the Mediterranean Sea have been cultivating the same Fig cultivars for several centuries because the material for propagation was transported by trading ships and easily took in new places. Romans already selected the better seedlings and spread the species over Europe as far as Great Britain. The Arabs took African varieties to Spain and Portugal. In Germany various cultivars were introduced in the 18th Century and later for nutrition but also for study.

In recent years some scientific Institutions in Europe have exchanged cultivars and collected local germplasm, mainly in order to enlarge the knowledge on the Fig species, its utility, and clarify the synonymies and the homonymies which constitute a great problem in every Fig growing country.

Five Institutions participating to the "GENRES 29" project are involved in Fig evaluation and have collected a total of 432 accessions, which are not only national types but also foreign ones useful to our research, subdivided as follows:

Every collection is relatively very important in its own country, because it groups together local types for which there exist doubts about the name, correspondence, origin. The collections of CBNP, SIA-EX (IVIA) and ISF-CE gather the material from all over their country; DPV-PZ and ICA-SS have respectively collected types which are specifically from the South of the Italian peninsula and Sardinia. Major progress in the identification of the accessions have been achieved by CBNP and ICA-SS, since all accessions have the cultivar name. Accessions belonging to the other partners have also many abbreviations or code names which refer to clones without a name. The individuation of duplicates within each collection has been the principal aim of SIA-EX (IVIA), having more recent accessions than the other.

For further research and economic development of European Fig growing, it is useful to keep up connections both with other European collections (not included in "GENRES 29") and extra-European collections. In particular, more information should be acquired on Fig types present in Greece and Portugal. Outside Europe the most extensive and most important collections are in Crimea, Turkey and USA.

Since ancient times fresh fig fruits has been used for human consumption, but recently the nutritive value has been highlighted (pectic substances to prevent the blocking of veins; calcium for infantile milk production; etc.). Figs are also used as dried product (stuffed with other nuts; aromatized in various ways; covered with chocolate, icing etc.). It is also possible to produce canned figs, cakes, fruit salads and jams using also the fruit of the wild figs. Alcohol also can be obtained. Ficin is extracted from the leaves and used in pharmaceutics.

The Pomegranate is a fruit tree known by different civilisations. It is quoted in the Holy Bible, in the Koran, being at present very appreciated by Arabs, Jews and other Mediterranean populations. It was traditionally grown in the Mediterranean Basin, North of Africa and Asia.

To the Punica genus (family Mirtaceae) belong two species: P. granatum L. and P. nana L., respectively cultivated for the fruits and as ornamental tree. It is a very hard species, well adapted to many different climates and soils, grown very often in very bad areas for cultivation. Pomegranate is a small tree, measuring less than 4 m when cultivated, although it can reach 7 m in the wild. The fruit is a fleshy berry denominated balausta, whose interior is filled with many edible fleshy seeds, prismatic in shape, very juicy. The ripe fruit is greenish yellow or brown with reddish areas which may occasionally occupy the whole fruit surface.

The first efforts toward the knowledge of the collected accessions in Europe started with the "GENRES 29" project, which includes research Institutions from Greece, Italy and Spain. Other countries of the Mediterranean Basin, Minor Asia, North of Africa and Asia hold important collection, among which the largest one (1,117 accessions) is located in Turkmenistan. The gene pool in the area of origin of Pomegranate (Next East), is impressive. At present there is no exchange of material between the different countries, being the collections quite static; the exchange of vegetal material should be encouraged.

The Pomegranate collection within the project is formed by 116 accessions, subdivided as follows:

The state of conservation can be considered satisfactory at present, but gaps should be fulfilled with the introduction of new material from other countries. A larger financial support should be addressed to enlarge the collections quantitatively and qualitatively. Up to now the Descriptor List have been defined and the collected material of Pomegranate have been characterised. The maturity index, the strength of seeds, the size of fruit, the productivity, the precocity, the colour of the skin and of the seeds are the most important descriptors for the commercial utilisation of these species.

The studies on the existing Pomegranate populations indicates that the cultivars should be selected for quality (high sugar content, good taste, long shelf-life of fruits), productivity (large fruit size and high yield per tree), and ripening time (broadening the harvest time in order to avoid excess of offer). Furthermore tools and method for processing the Pomegranates should be encouraged, namely for juice extraction.

Normally consumed fresh, Pomegranates can also be used to obtain a variety of products such as juices, jams, preserves, jellies etc. In some countries the fruits are used as decoration in fruit bowls. The plant is of ornamental interest, especially in case of old specimens with twisted trunks and branches. Both P. granatum with its edible fruits and the dwarf P. nana, whose fruit is inedible, are used for this purpose.

Japanese Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.f. = D. kaki Thunb), family Ebenaceae, is believed to originate from the warm areas of China, from which it was introduced firstly in Korea and Japan and then in Europe (Spain, Italy, Greece and France). The propagation by seed of original introduced genetic material and bud mutations lead possibly to the formation of European local varieties, part of which are already cultivated especially in Italy and Spain.

Main peculiarities of Japanese Persimmon are linked to flowering (presence and distribution of male, female and hermaphrodite flowers), to fruit-set (pollination and parthenocarpy) and to the astringency of fruits at harvest time in relation to pollination.

Cultivars are classified into the following four groups: Pollination Constant Non Astringent (PCNA), Pollination Variant Non Astringent (PVNA), Pollination Constant Astringent (PCA) and Pollination Variant Astringent (PVA). All fruits of PCNA cultivars and only pollinated fruits of PVNA cultivars can be eaten at harvest (hard fruit). In all other cases fruits can be eaten over-ripened (soft) or after artificial removal of astringency. The fruits are eaten for dessert, sometimes they can be dried or used for juice production or marmalades. Japanese Persimmon is also used as ornamental tree.

During this Century the exchange of genetic material of Diospyros kaki was very active and many different accessions have been imported mainly from Japan, USA, China, New Zealand, Israel and Brazil by firstly Italian and Spanish Institutions involved in this Project.

The European collection holds a total of 160 accessions distributed as follows:

One major problem encountered during the evaluation of collected accessions was linked to genetic identity and distinctness of cultivars due to cases of synonymies and homonymies between accessions collected in different sites.

Taking into account the country of origin, 63% of accessions is from Japan, and 16.9% and 9.6% are respectively from Italy and Spain (they are possible "local" varieties, even if their origin should be validated with rigorous studies). Some accessions seems to be originated in USA (1.8%) and China (1.2%), while others are of uncertain origin (7.5%).

In spite of the relatively low number of collected accessions of Japanese Persimmon at the European level, it was possible to define a "core collection" formed by 24 accessions on the basis of the botanical species, of the pomological classification of cultivars in relation to flesh astringency and to sex expression and of the genetic and geographic origin; further parameters taken into account were, when available, the similarity indexes calculated both on morphological and qualitative traits and on genetic markers (RAPD).

Finally, in order to rationalise the conservation and utilisation of Japanese Persimmon it is necessary to explore Greek farmland and collect local germplasm; identify accessions between the European collections and in comparison to the genotypes collected in the countries of origin; introduce defined genotypes with peculiar genetic traits (namely early ripening time and resistance to cold and diseases); and duplicate those genotypes conserved in a unique collection.

The centre of origin of Eriobotrya japonica L., family Rosaceae, species has been accepted to be the middle and lower valley of the Daduhe river in China. From there it was spread to Japan and later in the 18th Century to Europe. The Loquat was adapted very well to the Mediterranean Basin, same areas where citrus crop can be grown.

There are three European collections within the "GENRES 29" project subdivided as follows:

Within IVIA collection, 28 accessions out of 47 (60%) are native germplasm from Spain, while 10 accessions come from Italy, 3 from Japan, 2 from Brazil and 4 are unknown. In this area, growers have been selecting new varieties from seedlings or mutations. Regarding the DPV-PZ collection, 16 out of 21 accessions are native from Italy and 5 come from Spain. Finally, SPOTI collection has 10 accessions from survey among native plant material from Greece, while the rest comes from Cyprus or Japan.

The rationalisation of European collections implies the complete characterisation and evaluation of the collections, the identification of most important gaps and duplicates, the introduction of plant material of other European and non-European origin, the definition of a final "core-collection".

Historically, Loquat was an ornamental tree with small fruits and was spread from Japan to Europe in the 18th Century. Later, in the 19th Century, selections of cultivars with larger fruits were available and the fruits were used by consumers. However, it is still used for landscaping. Nowadays most of the production is for fresh market. Loquat fruits have a melting and refreshing flesh, aromatic, sweet and acid. They are consumed in syrup, jams and spirits. Leaves of Loquat are used in various countries to treat skin diseases and diabetes. Unifloral Loquat honey is also very appreciated.

Prickly Pear or Cactus Pear refers to different species belonging to the genus Opuntia (Tourn.) Mill. Native in the tropical area of America, the genus consists of 300 species growing from Canada to Patagonia, and the centre of its major genetic diversity is found in Mexico. The large diffusion of Opuntiae, family Cactaceae, outside its native area has allowed the conservation of its original large genetic variability, which has been important in the new areas of diffusion. In these areas, from the time of its introduction Opuntia species have undergone a selection process over time, mainly directed to increase the plant adaptability to the environment or related to the main use of the plant. In Europe and in the Mediterranean areas Opuntia ficus–indica is the mainly cultivated species.

Only recently the conservation and evaluation of Opuntia genetic resources has been implemented and the most representative accessions of the genetic variability in Europe were collected. The conservation of Cactus Pear genetic resources in the Mediterranean countries of Europe regards local biotypes mainly belonging to Opuntia ficus–indica and O. amyclaea, both cultivated or selected within the naturalised European population growing in the natural environment. Genotypes of other Opuntia species, some of which are present in Europe and some others recently introduced, were also collected. The European inventory of Opuntia spp. includes 130 accessions collected by five Institutions involved in the "GENRES 29" project as follows:

The conservation of Opuntia genetic resources needs different interventions which should be carried out in the next future. The role played by Opuntia as minor crop, mainly in Europe, has limited the development of systematic studies on germplasm evaluation, characterisation and management, as well as on breeding. Many problems remain to solve regarding taxonomy of the genus and the genotypes identification. The Opuntia genetic resources already collected in Europe represent both natural population and varieties commercially exploited and may be considered large enough to describe the genetic variability within the European area of diffusion of the genus. Since the collected material seems to be mainly directed towards the fruit industry production, more genotypes characterised for the other uses should be collected. Furthermore, genotypes characterised by specific traits useful to implement the fruit quality and the resistance to stresses should be collected and characterised.

Fruits are normally consumed fresh, but can also be used to produce marmalades, beverages, syrups, candies, flour and seed oils. Cladodes are transformed or consumed as vegetables in Mexico. Moreover, Cactus Pear is also used for ornamental purposes, as fodder for cattle, and in some cosmetic, pharmaceutic and industrial sectors.

One of the general objectives of the "GENRES 29" project was to develop a first database on germplasm collections comprehensive of both first and advanced characterisation descriptors, also linked to the agronomic evaluation of collected material.

On the basis of the final Descriptor List defined for each of the considered 16 minor fruit tree species of the Mediterranean Basin, the European Minor Fruit Tree Species Database (EMFTSDatabase) has been created for all species with Microsoft Access software. Afterwards, it was decided to adopt the Multicrop Descriptors of IPGRI and FAO for Passport Data, since it will allow to connect EMFTSDatabase with other international databases. Numerous queries have been generated; they can been selected trough different entries:

Technical tasks regarded mainly the computing and input in EMFTSDatabase of the collected data. At present, collected and computed data for all categories represent the 60% of the total amount of data to be collected during the whole project. More in detail 60.8% of data have been collected on accessions of the 8 inventoried species, while of the remaining 39.2% of non inventoried species, 46.9% are on ex situ accessions and 58.3% on in situ accessions. Data for each species are reported in table 1.

Already collected and computed data regarding Passport, First Characterisation, and Further characterisation and Evaluation represents the 91.8%, 74.6% and 45.5% of total observable data for each category, respectively.

Before March 1999, the EMFTSDatabase will be connected on-line to the Internet. Moreover, the EMFTSDatabase will be freely available to public and private extension services; the distribution of information will use different media, that is print, microcomputer electronic diskette and on-line in the Internet.

Quince (Cydonia oblonga L.), family Rosaceae, is an ancient fruit tree species, whose centre of origin is believed to be a large area in Asia Minor and Caucasus. It was known and cultivated both by Roman and Greek people (Cydonia is the ancient name of the Crete town of Chania), and then spread to other European countries (Germany, Great Britain) and Eastern Europe countries (Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and Russia) through the normal commercial and cultural exchanges that took place among different populations of the time. In the 15th Century it has been exported in South America by way of the new routes discovered by Columbus and subsequently by Spanish and Portuguese conquerors, while its spreading in India occurred as a consequence of British colonisation.

Botanist divide the species Cydonia oblonga in 5 sub-species. The genetic variability is quite high for most of the traits. As a matter of fact, different authors have described more than 100 varieties observing little differences among certain cultivars. Though, it must be considered that the high polymorphism of fruits and leaves and the many existing synonymies make for a difficult characterisation of the same varieties. Some are self-incompatible and they must be pollinated for production. Anyhow, also self-compatible varieties take advantage of cross-pollination. Only a few varieties are parthenocarpic.

In the past, fresh utilisation of Quince fruits was much more important. The white-yellowish pulp is easily oxidised to air exposition, is firm and often rich in schelerinchymatous cells and generally acid and astringent, so it is not suitable for fresh consumption. At present, transformation industry is the main destination of the product, and thus only a very small portion is consumed as fresh fruit. The most important utilisation are mustard production, alimentary preserves, marmalades, jelly, liquors and distilled products.

In recent years Quince production has gone trough a strong reduction in all countries of diffusion; nevertheless, several Greek and Italian Institutions started to collect and exchange cultivars. The European collection of Quince for fruit production within the project "GENRES 29" amounts to 87 accessions, held by the following 5 Partners:

Individuation of duplicates within and between accessions has been difficult, for the reasons above mentioned. The attempt of fingerprinting some of the accessions by means of molecular markers such as microsatellites and ISSR did not give the expected results. Thus, at present the creation of a "core-collection" is not yet possible, though the statistical comparison of data gained with standard techniques by different Institutions involved is in progress.

Chestnut, family Fagaceae, is one of the most important nut crop in the Temperate Zone. With species indigenous to all the continents of the Northern Hemisphere, the Chestnut has long been grown throughout China, Korea, Japan, and the Mediterranean Basin. In Asia, the Japanese Chestnut (Castanea crenata Sieb. and Zucc.) has been cultivated since the 11th Century and the Chinese Chestnut (Castanea mollissima Bl.) possibly as long ago as 6,000 years. In the Mediterranean Region, Chestnuts have been cultivated for at least 3,000 years. The ancient Greeks are thought to have been among the first Europeans to cultivate the nut, introducing the European Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) from Asia Minor, via Turkey, to Southern Europe and North Africa.

Chestnut culture is now improving after many years of decline and abandon, old groves are being recuperated and new plantings are being made all over Europe. In this context the conservation and evaluation of Chestnut genotypes for superior nut and timber production is of great importance both to start breeding programs and to preserve and use the under-exploited genetic resources of this species. In Italy, a Geographic Protected Indication (IGP) has been obtained for "Marrone del Mugello" (Firenze), "Castagna di Montella" (Avellino) and "Marrone di Castel del Rio" (Bologna).

The "GENRES 29" project led us to include 89 accessions distributed among 3 different Institutions as follows:

The major problem, probably common to other Species Coordinators, encountered during the project is the identity of Chestnut genotypes (synonymies and homonymies) among accessions collected in different sites. Another point, strictly related with this species, is the meaning of the word "Marrone", generally used to define a high quality (and high priced) nut. The word is subject of debate among producers, merchants and consumers, each of whom seems to have an idea about what a "Marrone" really is. The simplest definition may be that offered in France where a distinction is made between "Chestnuts" and "Marroni" stating that while both are the fruit of the Chestnut tree, the kernel is divided into multiple embryos (with pellicle intrusion) in Chestnut while the "Marroni" are defined as particular cultivars of the best quality well adapted to candying, with a small hylar scar that tends to be rectangular, a light colored shell with dark, closely spaced stripes often in relief and the nutmeat is not grooved and is easily separated from the pellicle that does not intrude into the cotiledonary mass.

Anyhow, the importance of Chestnut cannot be underestimated. In the past the nuts served as year-round food for humans and animals. An entire food chain was based on the annual production of the Chestnut forests, and this explains why Chestnut is also called "bread-tree": people relied on it as well as on bread. Moreover, Chestnut wood was used for building, roofing, fencing, mine timbers and railroad ties and as fuelwood. Nowadays, this species is still very important for nut (fresh market, "marons glacès", marmalades, etc.) and timber production as well as forest species, but an improvement of genotypes easy-to-propagate and/or resistant to major diseases and pests (i.e.: Chestnut blight, Ink disease) is needed.

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), family Anacardiaceae, is a dioecious and deciduous species that originated in West Asia and Asia Minor. Eleven species of Pistacia are recorded from this Region including Pistacia vera, which occurs wild in Central and South-Western Asia. Wild species play an important role in the cultivation of Pistachio tree as they provide roostocks resistant to pest diseases and environmental stresses. Tolerance to drought and ability to grow in poor soils are the main traits that make Pistachio tree and its wild relatives particularly suitable for planting in marginal lands.

Unknown Pistachio trees have been distributed in the Mediterranean countries since the Roman Empire (30 A.D.), but this plant began to be grown on a large scale only by the Arabs (IX – XII Century). Despite of the ancient origin and the long period of cultivation only some female cultivars of Pistachio are now grown world-wide together with an even more restricted number of unnamed male selections. Pistachio varieties are under threat of genetic erosion. The destruction of the natural habitats and the change from traditional agricultural system to modern cultivation practices have contributed to a reduction of genetic diversity. In fact, in each country the new Pistachio orchards have been planted with just one female and two-three males varieties. Most of the local minor varieties are no longer gown on a commercial scale, nor are they available in nurseries, showing a trend towards continuous genetic reduction so that this genetic reserve has been rapidly eroded. Nevertheless, considerable variation in male and female plant material can still be found throughout Mediterranean countries, where Pistachio represents a source of income especially for Syria, Turkey, Greece and, to a minor extent, for Italy; in this latter it is only economically grown in Sicily.

Since there are possible cases of synonymy among the varieties grown in each Mediterranean country and to avoid the disappearance of minor varieties and safeguard the valuable genetic resource of Pistachio, the conservation and evaluation of genetic resources in Europe was promoted by the "GENRES 29" project. A total of 113 accessions were collected by the following Partners:

The use of some highly discriminatory descriptors among those reported in the Descriptor List for Pistachio and the subsequent statistical analysis of the data proved to be useful in describing and characterising the collected germplasm and showed that a considerable degree of variation still exists among them.

The evaluation of the female cultivars indicated that genotypes originated in the Iranian Caspian Region, because they have large fruit and a high percentage of splitting and suture opening, are more suitable for ‘direct consumption’ (snakes) whereas only the Mediterranean genetic pool produces fruits suitable to be processed for both traditional (pastries, sausages, ice-creams) and innovative uses (cosmetics, pharmacological products). In fact, only the cultivars traditionally grown in the Mediterranean countries produce nuts showing low splitting, green and highly flavoured kernels which are the traits requested for a long and safe storage, an absolute criterion for industrial purposes.

The Strawberry Tree, Arbutus unedo L., is an evergreen shrub/tree native in the Mediterranean Basin and in the South West Ireland. As other Ericaceae species, Arbutus unedo is one of the species of the Mediterranean "maquis" spread in many temperate-warm habitat. In each area the Strawberry Tree is associated in specific manner with other shrub or tree species, and plays an important role in the life of these ecosystems. Arbutus unedo is usually grown from seed and whereas it is possible, propagated from rooted suckers or cuttings. It was recently diffused in many botanical gardens throughout the world, together with other related species as Arbutus andrachne L. (Cyprus Strawberry Tree) and Arbutus menziesii Pursh (Pacific Madrone). Some authors indicate that Arbutus unedo was introduced in the Northern Islands of Europe during the Romans rules, while some others give evidence that this species is native in some areas of the British Islands as attested by its presence before the last ice age.

At present the Strawberry Tree is mainly used as ornamental plant in private gardens and parks, while the fruits are sometimes sold on local markets for fresh consumption. In Sardinia there is a particular type of honey made of Strawberry Tree flowers.

In specific European region or natural areas the study of Arbutus unedo biodiversity was recently undergone, supported by local projects and some ecotypes or monumental trees were described. The conservation in situ of Arbutus unedo genetic resources was promoted by the EC in the "GENRES 29" project.

This species is actually uncollected, and little information on its domestication is available. Arbutus unedo genotypes were collected in two defined areas of Europe: in Italy, North and Centre Sardinia, and in Greece, Pieria and Magnesia regions, by the following Partners:

On the basis of specific reference in the literature, a definite Descriptor List was set up and was used for the first characterisation and evaluation of the in situ collected accessions.

In both regions no cultivated varieties were collected: all the plants were wild and collected from sea level to 900 m a.s.l., in very different type of soils.

The standardisation of the identification techniques used in each country was the first step adopted. It will be possible to identify duplicates within the European collections in a next future, when other biometric, chemical and genetic observations will be taken and all the data will be analysed with a statistical approach.

The great variability observed in the in situ European collections, also due to the more frequent occurrence of interaction between genotype and environment, should be better investigated in an ex situ collection, where the accessions identified in situ for their distinctive traits could be compared in order to verify and to defend the genetic diversity. At the same time the survey should be extended to the other European countries, where Arbutus unedo is native. Therefore, further accessions growing in the cold areas of the British Islands and of Portugal, where a greater variability in the phenotypic or in the genetic characteristics is expected, should be collected.

Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas L.) is the most important from the 40 species of the family Cornaceae. These species grow in Temperate Zone, except one, which is native in Peru. Cornelian Cherry is a deciduous tree or shrub that grows on calcareous, well-drained forest soils and has good adaptability in fact of soil fertility. It can be grown under the shade of tall trees. It was well known since Homer period with the name Krania.

Cornelian Cherry is considered as a species with medium genetic variability, which now is not subjected to high risks of genetic erosion. Cultivated varieties do not exist, but few selected wild seedlings or clonally propagated are cultivated in yards, fences of farms or as ornamentals in gardens. Very important genotypes of Cornelian Cherry have been found in different Provinces of Greece. Some of them are very productive, others with red or yellow fruits, others with big fruits but self-sterile, etc. They have been found in forest vineyards, fences, on altitude 100-1,200 meters. Nurserymen sometimes sell local selections (in small scale) with name derived from location ("Cornus of Gournosovo") or the size of the fruit ("Giant Cornus") or the time of ripening ("Late Cornus").

Collections under study within the "GENRES 29" project include 16 accessions; part of them (all ex situ) are found in different Provinces of Greece (Imathia, Zagora), while the remaining ones (1 ex situ and 5 in situ) are grown in Italy, as follows:

The collected cultivars are seedlings, local varieties, old varieties, clones, natural hybrids, etc., which show valuable genetic characteristics (fruit quality, resistance to unfavourable soil-climatic conditions, resistance to pest and diseases, etc.). For each accession a Descriptor List have been completed with their more important characteristics.

The most common use of Cornelian Cherry fruits, is for the production of different drinks and sweets, and for dessert. Its uses were very well known many years ago. Homer refers that Cornelian Cherry fruits were given as food for pigs. Theofrastus reports the Cornelian Cherry fruit as kranion. The fruits are also used for preparation of gels, jams and in cookery. Cornelian Cherry was an important medicinal plant in old years. The astringency of the fruits is well known since antiquity. The use of edible fruit is used against diarrhoea enteritis, not completely ignored by the medicine. Bark, shoots, and roots were used against fever with relative action as Chincona Tree wood; bark extracts can cure dog itch. The fine hard wood can be used to obtain different articles of turnery. As ornamental Cornelian Cherry (with brilliant leaves and abundant flowers) can be employed with very interesting effect in parks and small gardens.

According to the most recent theory, partially corresponding to that of Vavilov, the area of origin of Medlar (Mespilus germanica L.), family Rosaceae, should be localised in the south-eastern part of the Balkan peninsula, in Asia Minor, on the Caucasus, Crimea, northern Iran and Turkmenistan. The specific name ‘germanica’ adopted by Linneus refers to the widespread presence of wild Medlars in Germany, which he believed the area of origin of the species, a statement generally considered incorrect. The species has been naturalised in central and southern Europe, in southern England and in the Channel Islands. At different times Medlar was introduced in other countries: two Centuries ago in North America and in the 17th Century in South Africa.

The most common use of Medlar fruits is the raw consumption after bletting, when the flesh becomes sweet and slightly acid. Although almost forgotten for many years, the fruit is now quite a common autumnal sight in greengrocers’ in different countries. Jams and jellies are made and in cookery a surprisingly long list of recipes can be found, which were rediscovered in recent years for niche markets. As an ornamental plant, Medlar can be employed to very interesting effect in small gardens. Secondary uses of the plant in the past included: tannin from bark, leaves and immature fruits for tanning; wood for turnery and fruits for folk medicine.

M. germanica is considered a species with low genetic variability and subject to high risks of genetic erosion. Wild seedlings and cultivars do exist, but few advances have been made towards improved varieties in comparison with other minor Maloideae. Evreinoff (1953) cited 23 different races, comprising wild and half-wild types. The cultivars "Dutch" (with big fruit), "Common" (with medium fruit), "Royal" (with small fruit), "Nottingham" (with small, tasty fruit) and "Stoneless" are probably the best known. The present availability in nurseries is limited. In Italy, there are usually only 3 cultivars available, but local selections, sometimes of uncertain identification, can also be found ("Medlar of Castelraniero", "Medium fruit", "Giant", "Drop-shaped", "Early Medlar"). In Greece large fruited varieties (Mespilus germanica var. macrocarpa) are the most common as cultivated plants.

The European collection of Mespilus germanica consists of 14 accessions, held by the following Institutions:

The observed variability concerns traits such as fruit shape (from conical-elongated, to spherical or flat), size (from small, about 10 g, to very big, about 80 g), time of ripening and bletting. Morphologic traits and phenology were used to identify the collected germplasm. Some gaps in the collection should be noted (e.g., "Stoneless Medlar", "Nottingham") and problems of identification are not completely solved.

Outside the "GENRES 29" project, ex situ collections of Medlar are located in Corvallis-Oregon (NCGR), United Kingdom (MAAF-NFC), Italy (ITAS-RE) and Hungary. The inventory of Medlar germplasm started in Germany. The comparison of the accessions held within and outside the "GENRES 29" project, the integration of collection with known varieties and the extension to plants wild or grown in areas not yet explored may improve the basis of knowledge for conservation and exploitation of Medlar.

Azarole (Crataegus azarolus L.), member of the family Rosaceae, is probably native of western Asia, where it grows wild in different forms. The species is presently distributed from the Mediterranean region, where it has long been cultivated or naturalised (northern Africa, Spain, Italy, southern France, Malta, Crete, Aegean Islands), through Asia Minor and Iran to central Asia (Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tadgikistan and Kyrgyzystan).

Azarole can be used for different purposes: as an ornamental, fruit and medicinal plant. As a fruit tree, Azarole is now rarely cultivated, usually only in domestic orchards and gardens, as an isolated plant, in rows, or grafted in hedges of C. monogyna. The fruit was appreciated for fresh consumption for many Centuries and it was offered as a delicacy on Renaissance tables. Agronomic problems, the small size of fruits and the low resistance to handling during harvest and transportation have prevented cultivation in specialised orchards. In Italy Azarole fruit is still sold in September and October in local markets and in ‘speciality’ grocery stores at quite high prices. Old and new recipes based on this rare ingredient have been refined to create tasty jams and jellies, preserved in syrup or candied fruits and salads. Like other species belonging to the genus Crataegus, C. azarolus has medicinal properties which are still partially unknown. Flowers and leaves may be used as minor components in commercial drugs for their hypotensive principles and positive action on the heart. The use of Azarole as dwarfing rootstock for pear and apple has been recently experimented.

Azarole has become increasingly rare in the last Century. Consequently the knowledge about taxonomy, varieties and genetic variability is limited. The high number of species and the possibility of easy hybridisation make the classification of the genus Crataegus and of the species azarolus difficult. According to Christensen’s revision of the taxa of Crataegus sect. Crataegus (1992), the species azarolus belongs to the series Orientales and includes four different botanical varieties: azarolus, aronia, chlorocarpa and pontica. The few pomological descriptions in old texts report the existence of some selected varieties ("Azzeruolo rosso d’Italia", "Azzeruolo bianco d’Italia" and "Azzeruolo giallo" in Italy; "Monstruoso" and "Orihuela" in Spain) and spontaneous ecotypes, mainly differing in the size and shape of the fruit and the colour of the skin. In Italy few different types are currently available in nurseries, where sometimes other related Crataegus species and hybrids (Glandulosa, Carrieri) are also sold with the common name of Azarole.

The European collection includes 13 accessions (2 ex situ; 11 in situ) inventoried in Italy (Emilia Romagna, Lazio and Molise) by the Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale, Università della Tuscia, of Viterbo (DPV-VT); five of the specimens in situ have been recently propagated and planted ex situ for further evaluation. Historical references, biometric, biological and qualitative traits as well as biochemical markers (flavonoids) were used for the taxonomic and pomological classification. On this basis the accessions were distinguished in four well differentiated groups with low variation within each. The two most interesting groups for fruit production seem respectively to correspond to the cultivated varieties "Lazzerolo bianco" (or "Lazzerolo Moscatello") and "Lazzerolo a frutto rosso" described by the pomologist Gallesio in the 19th Century.

The extension of collection and characterisation and comparison between samples of different geographical origin (specimens in Botanical gardens and Arboreta; cultivated and wild plants) are needed to fill gaps in the present knowledge of Azarole genetic resources.

Service Tree (Sorbus domestica L.), member of the family Rosaceae, is generally considered native in Southern and Eastern Europe and naturalised in Central Europe, Northern Africa and in the Black Sea area, but there is some doubt as regards its naturalised or indigenous state in some countries (Austria, Switzerland, UK). S. domestica is a component of mixed broad-leaved woods, with interesting potential for forestry, ornamental, dietary, food and medicinal uses. Service Tree plants, once grown for its fruit, can still be found near farmhouses and at the edge of fields and country roads, in marginal areas and abandoned farmland. The fruits, which are not edible and are astringent at ripening due to the high content of tannins, were traditionally consumed raw, after bletting, when the taste becomes sweet, slightly acid and somewhat fermented, or they were made into cider. The fruit is now rarely eaten fresh, but in Italy and other European countries (Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg) old and new recipes, such as jams, sauces, liqueurs, cider, schnapps and vinegar, are being proposed. In Italy the fruits are still sold in Autumn but only in the most specialised fruit shops.

Service Tree has been propagated by seed for Centuries. As a fruit tree, it has undergone only minimal selection activity by man, who has sometimes fixed the most interesting traits by means of grafting. As a result, a wide, underexploited variability exists for different aspects of the plant, fruit and wood. Two botanical varieties, pyrifera (Hayne) Rehd. and pomifera (Hayne) Rehd., are distinguished. In Italian nurseries plants are mostly obtained by seed; grafted plants of commercial varieties are generally classified only by fruit shape (‘apple’ and ‘pear’). Several cultivars, which can no longer be found have been described by pomologists in past centuries or are recalled by farmers.

Twenty-one accessions of S. domestica for fruit production were inventoried and characterised within the project "GENRES 29" by the Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale, Università della Tuscia, of Viterbo (DPV-VT) in some areas of the Italian peninsula (Emilia-Romagna, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania) and studied in situ (20) or ex situ (1). Wide variability in fruit shape and size, plant habit and vigour and time of ripening was observed. Nevertheless, the low number of accessions certainly does not represent the whole existing gene-pool for this species and can be considered only a preliminary approach towards a wider exploration and collection activity.

For a more comprehensive overview of Service Tree conservation, the situation in other countries of Europe, including its use as a forest tree, was considered. In recent years interest in this noble hardwood plant has led to increased awareness of the vulnerability of its genetic resources. The inventory and characterisation in situ, as a first step towards ex situ collections, has started in several countries, where the species is very rare (Switzerland, Austria, Germany, UK, Czech Republic) or rare (France). With few exceptions these programs did not consider, or only marginally consider the use of the fruit. Rare examples of selection (Serbia, Lithuania, USA) and ex situ conservation (Hungary, USA) exist for Service Tree as a fruit plant. In the countries of the Mediterranean Basin wild Service Trees are not so scarce and awareness of threat to its genetic diversity is less developed. The situation is quite different for the fruit plants: neglect, ageing and the felling of old individuals are threatening an important source of diversity. The establishment of a connection among countries and existing networks (EC-GENRES, IPGRI-EUFORGEN) with similar activities, the definition of common strategies and the extension of exploration, collection, characterisation and evaluation to other areas seem essential steps for the conservation and exploitation of this multi-purpose species.

Mulberry Tree refers to different species belonging to the genus Morus (family Moraceae) namely Morus alba L., Morus nigra L., Morus rubra L., Morus multicaulis Loud, Morus kagayamae Koidz. The Mulberry Tree is used by man since a very long time. However, it is not very well known.

M. alba comes from China, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia and Birmania and has been widely cultivated in Europe during the 18th and 19th Centuries for silkworms. It is still cultivated in China, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. M. nigra comes from North Iran, Turkey, Syria, Arabia, south of the Asian part of Russia, and is moreover cultivated in Europe, USA, Australia, south of Asian Russia and India. M. rubra comes from North America, while M. multicaulis comes from China and M. kagayamae from Japan; the last two species being cultivated also in Europe.

Mulberry Trees are able to grow in very poor soils. Soils may be calcareous or siliceous, it has no importance. Resistance of winter cold depends on the cultivar. Salty soils may be avoided.

In Middle East M. alba but mainly M. nigra are cultivated for fruit. In Lebanon, fruit is eaten fresh or transformed into syrup or juice. It is also used to flavour ice creams, giving them a beautiful violet colour. In Europe, M. nigra is mainly cultivated, because it is more sweet than M. alba and less acid. In France, during 19th Century, farmers planted M. nigra near the hen-houses to feed the poultry. In central Italy and Sicily, M. nigra is still cultivated on a small scale for local consumption. In USA, nurserymen have obtained interesting cultivars of M. rubra.

The European Inventory of Mulberry spp. includes 50 accessions collected by 2 Institutions, as follows:

The fruit is a small berry (4-5 g max.). The colour depends on the cultivar. The fruits of Mulberry Tree can be eaten for dessert. Excellent are juices and syrups. The most interesting cultivars are these who give black fruits. They are full aromatic, and have an exceptional colouring power, especially for jam and ice cream. Fruits, leaves, roots of Mulberry Tree may have medical uses, but this have to be more studied.

Carob Tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an evergreen tree, belonging to the family Leguminoseae, originated in South of Arabia and in the African horn area. It is typically a dioecious species but hermaphrodite and female or only hermaphrodite trees have also been recorded.

In Mediterranean countries Carob Tree has traditionally been grown in semi-arid zones where in the past has been considered a high profitable species for human and livestock food. Spain is the main country of cultivation. More recently Carob Tree has been introduced in some arid areas of Australia, USA, Central America and South Africa. Currently, about 200,000 ha of Carob Tree are grown all over the world.

Nutritionally, the pulp of the beans is rich of sugars (25-55%) and have low digestible protein (2-7%) and lipids content (1-1.5%). Low levels of minerals and vitamins are also detected. Traditionally, the milled, oven dried pulp has been added as flavour to cakes, bread, and as base components for the production of alcoholic drinks but currently new interest in Carob Tree has recently arisen because of industrial uses of the endosperm of the seed the "Carob bean gum", rich of galactomannans. This gum is used as stabiliser and dispersing agent in the food industry, to prepare cosmetics, adhesives, pharmaceutics. Because of selective pressures for alimentary purpose, most of the cultivars grown in commercial orchards have a large bean size, high pulp/seed ratio, and high sugar content but, unfortunately, they result low efficient in seed production (about 10%) and, consequently, very few cultivars are suitable for the new industrial uses of Carob seed. In fact, there is generally a negative relation between pulp and seed content in beans of many cultivars. Because it is drought-tolerance the use of the Carob Tree for reforestation of drylands areas threatened by desertification is increasing.

Carob Tree germplasm generally shows high degree of genetic variation of the phenotypic traits. Within the "GENRES 29" project three Partners are involved in Carob Tree evaluation, having collected a total of 24 accessions subdivided as follows:

In particular, the overall degree of polymorphism of the phenotypic traits and similarities/dissimilarities cases among 16 Sicilian Carob Tree varieties ("Bonifacio", "Cicara", "Comidi", "Favara", "Nera di Cefalù", "Normale", "Orleans 1", "Orleans 2", "Pasta", "Precoce", "Gibiliana", "Melara", "Calabrese", "Femminella", "Impollinatrice", "Spataiola") have been detected by using the biometric characteristics of leaves, leaflets and fruits of in situ trees. In addition pulp and seed yield in relation to endosperm percentage have been recorded.

Jujube (Zizyphus vulgaris L.) is a deciduous tree belonging to the Ramnaceae family. It has been introduced in the Mediterranean Basin from China and Central Asia since a long time. The plant grows in different kinds of soils and is resistant to draught because of its deep root system; anyway it prefers deep and non acid soils. It lives in temperate areas with long and hot summers. The tree can be damaged by early frost in Autumn, therefore in cold areas it can be cultivated in zones with warm microclimatic conditions.

In the Mediterranean countries there are no selected cultivars, but genotypes generically indicated as "with round fruit" or "with oblong fruits". Some of them, mainly cultivated in Morocco, are thornless. They are very productive, with valuable taste characteristics, often self-incompatible and with limited stigma receptivity.

Additionally to other minor fruit tree species, two collections of Jujube within the "GENRES 29" project were studied in Greece (Imathia, Pella, Atalanti and Kerkira Provinces) and Spain by the following Partners:

The marked cultivars are seedlings, local varieties, old varieties, clones, natural hybrids etc., which show valuable genetic characteristics (fruit quality, resistance to unfavourable soil-climatic conditions, resistance to pest and diseases, etc.). The accessions have been characterised taking into account the Descriptor List already defined for this species.

Jujube tree is ornamental because of it irregular habit and foliage. Fruits are eaten soon after harvest or over-ripened. Fruits can be used for marmalades and can be found in supermarkets and in greengrocers.

All the sixteen minor fruit species of the "GENRES 29" project are existing in the Greek Islands. Eleven species out of 16 (Fig, Pomegranate, Japanese Persimmon, Loquat, Cactus Pear, Quince, European Chestnut, Pistachio, Strawberry Tree, Mulberry Tree and Carob Tree) are more commonly spread in Greece, while the remaining 5 species (Azarole, Medlar, Cornelian Cherry, Jujube and Service Tree) are found only in some parts of Greece. At present, only Fig, Pistachio, Loquat, Carob Tree, European Chestnut, Pomegranate, Japanese Persimmon, Cactus Pear and Quince have some economic importance for the Greek agriculture.

The majority of the Fig cultivation exists in Peloponnesus (areas of Messinia, Arkadia, Lakonia), in Evia (area of Kimi) and in the Aegean islands (mainly Lesvos, Andros, Naxos, Samos). The organised Fig orchards for dry and fresh fruits production occupy an area of 9,000 and 700 ha, respectively; while there are another 1,5 million of scattered trees for both dry and fresh Fig production planted on the borders of olive, almond or grape orchards. The total annual production is of about 30,000 and 20,000 t of fresh and dry Figs, respectively.

Pistachio is cultivated in central Greece and in many Aegean islands (Rhodes, Kos, Siros, Chios, Santorini, Aegina), covering an area of 4,500 ha in organised orchards producing 8,000-10,000 t of dry fruits per year.

Loquat is cultivated mainly with citrus and olives in the north Peloponnesus (areas of Korinthia and Achaia), in East Crete, in the Aegean islands (mainly in Rhodes, Kos, Kalimnos) and in the Ionian islands (mainly in Corfu). There exist about 150,000 Loquat trees producing about 2,500 t of fruits per year.

Carob Tree is scattered in the South of Greece (Ionian islands, East and South Peloponnesus, Aegean islands and Crete). The area occupied by the Carob Tree is of about 3,900 ha and the mean annual production reaches 19,000 t.

European Chestnut is cultivated at high altitudes in the midland and in the islands. Most of the trees are scattered; the total area occupied by Chestnut trees is 6,000 ha for fruit production and 33,000 ha for coppicing.

Pomegranate is cultivated mainly in the Aegean islands (Chios, Lesvos, Samos, Rhodes, Kalimnos, Kos), in Crete, in Peloponnesus (Argos, Astros), in Central Greece (Lamia) and in Macedonia (Veria, Edessa, Pella). There exist about 265,000 trees (only 25,000 trees belong to organised orchards) producing about 2,750 t of fruits per year.

Japanese Persimmon and Cactus Pear plants are found almost in all Greek Islands. There exist about 120,000 Japanese Persimmon plants and about 300,000 Cactus Pear plants, planted in home yards and scattered in orchards of other fruit trees. The fruits of both species are mainly consumed by their producers and only a small quantity is sold in fruit shops.

Trees of Quince, Medlar, Jujube and Mulberry Tree are scattered in some farms in Greek Islands, while plants of Strawberry Tree, Azarole, Cornelian Cherry and Service Tree are self-sown in many parts of Greece.

Five Institutions of the National Agricultural Research Foundation of Greece (NAGREF) have selected, evaluated and placed in collections 213 cultivars from the existing local population of Fig, Pistachio, Loquat, Carob Tree, Pomegranate, Cactus Pear, Quince, Medlar, Strawberry Tree, Mulberry Tree and Cornelian Cherry. In the next future it is of great importance to explore the Greek farmland in order to look for and collect local germplasm of Japanese Persimmon, Jujube and European Chestnut.

20. PROBLEMS and PERSPECTIVES of MINOR FRUIT TREE SPECIES

When talking about under-utilised (or minor) fruit tree species, we refer to a group of potentially important woody species which are actually characterised by a low weight in the market of both crop production and consumption in comparison to "major" crops. The main aspects of their high potentiality can be summarised, among others, in the following items: crop production for both food and non-food purposes, agricultural diversification, use of marginal lands, protection of the environment and landscape, safeguard of both natural and cultural heritage, utilisation of derivatives and natural compounds, ornamental value, use of genes encoding for resistance to stress and diseases.

Unfortunately, their use in the modern fruit-growing is deeply hindered by several factors, as the weak knowledge in the varietal selection, in the propagation, in harvest and post-harvest, in the commercialisation and consume. Nevertheless, their cultivation often represent the main agricultural activity for certain areas, where the product can be locally commercialised (niche markets) and/or from where it can be exported to other regions or countries.

As a matter of fact, since many years different European research Institutions have been collecting accessions of rare fruits species. Given the rich and variegated gene pool of the European genetic resources of the under-utilised fruit tree species their preservation as a whole deals with a high degree of complexity. Hence conservative actions towards these species in Europe are quite informal, non co-ordinated and sporadic due to their heterogeneity and their low economic impact when individually considered, a part from some geographical limited areas or peculiar situations.

In this context the "GENRES 29" project deals with a defined subset of 16 minor fruit species (for a total of 1,368 collected accessions) grown in the Mediterranean areas of France, Greece, Italy and Spain. The main tasks and relative results can be summarised as follows: a) Inventory of collected accessions; b) definition of Descriptor Lists; c) Characterisation and Evaluation of accessions; d) creation of the EMFTSDatabase; e) definition of main aspects for Rationalisation of collection; f) Promotion for utilisation.

Major problems individuated during the project’s lifetime dealing with the conservation of under-utilised species in Europe are: the high complexity of the whole set, even under the co-ordination of specialists; the scattered geographical dislocation of collections and hence, the relative coverage of the net-work (the approximate number of collected accessions of the same 16 species all over Europe is 3,000 held by more than 30 public Institutions); the denomination of accessions (high number of synonymies and homonymies) both in the ex situ collected material and in the newly in situ entered accessions; the identification and distinctness of accessions (which is a bottle-neck for the characterisation and evaluation, and for the rationalisation of collections, especially for the identification of gaps and duplicates both at a within and a between collection level); the standardisation of collection evaluation (reference varieties not always present in all collections).

The erosion of genetic resources affects either inventoried or not inventoried accessions because of the weak economical support for surveying, collecting and maintaining in situ and ex situ collections. This porcess is stressed by the modification of the environment and the landscape in wild and cultivated areas, by both the past and present substitution of minor species by major species and by the threat of biotic and abiotic injuries.

In an European context, it would be necessary to strengthen the effort to preserve the genetic resources of minor fruit tree species at regional, national and Community level, taking into account not only the present economic importance of these species, but their potentiality in the development of life quality.